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Seven Layers of ISO OSI Model

 

This layer provides a means for the user to access information on the network through an application. Many user applications that need to communicate over the network interact with the Application layer protocol directly. The user applications are not part of OSI Application layer, use the networking services offered by the networking protocol suite. Application layer functions typically include identifying communication partners, and determining availability of required resources. Some examples of application layer implementations include Telnet, File Transfer Protocol (FTP), and Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP).

2 Presentation layer:

Presentation layer converts local host computer data representations into a standard network format for transmission on the network. On the receiving side, it changes the network format into the appropriate host computer's format so that data can be utilized independent of the host computer. ASCII and EBCDIC conversions, cryptography, and the like are handled here.
Examples of Presentation layer coding and conversion schemes include common data representation formats, conversion of character representation formats, common data compression schemes, and common data encryption schemes.

Presentation layer implementations are not typically associated with a particular protocol stack. Some well-known standards for video include QuickTime and Motion Picture Experts Group (MPEG). QuickTime is an Apple Computer specification for video and audio, and MPEG is a standard for video compression and coding.

3. Session layer:

The session layer establishes, manages, and terminates communication sessions. Communication sessions consist of service requests and service responses that occur between applications located in different network devices. These requests and responses are coordinated by protocols implemented at the session layer. Some examples of session-layer implementations include AppleTalk's Zone Information Protocol (ZIP), and Decent Phase Session Control Protocol (SCP).

4.Transport layer:

Transport layer is responsible for providing reliable service between the hosts. Upper layer datagrams are broken down into manageable datagrams and then appropriate header information (such as sequence number, port number, etc.) is added to the datagram before passing it on to the Network layer. Two frequently used transport protocols are the TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and the UDP (User Datagram Protocol).

Important features of Transport layer:

 

• Transport layer ensures reliable service.
• Breaks the message (from sessions layer) into smaller datagrams, and appends appropriate unit header information.
• Responsible for communicating with the Session layer

Important features of TCP/UDP:

 

 

• TCP/IP widely used protocol for Transport/Network layers
• TCP: (Transport Control Protocol) TCP ensures that a packet has reached its intended destination by using an acknowledgement. If not, it retransmits the lost messages. Hence, TCP is called a connection oriented protocol.
• UDP (Universal Data gram Protocol): UDP simply transmits packets over the internet. It does not wait for an acknowledgement. It is the responsibility of upper layer protocols to ensure that the information had reached the intended partner(s). Hence, UDP is often called connectionless protocol.
• Application programs that do not need connection-oriented protocol generally use UDP.

5. Network layer:

 

Network layer is responsible for the routing of packets through the entire network. The layer uses logical addressing for this purpose. Note that the physical address (like MAC address) keeps changing from hop to hop when a packet travels from source to destination. As a result, an address that doesn't change is required to ensure continuity between hops. This is nothing but logical address. For IP networks, IP address is the logical address; and for Novell network, IPX address is the logical address, and so on. This layer also provides for congestion control, and accounting information for the network. IP (Internet Protocol) is an example of a network layer protocol.

6. Data link layer:

Data link layer provides delivery of information frames between communicating partners. This layer is responsible for flow regulation, error detection and correction, and framing of bits for transmission. The network data frame is made up of checksum, source address, destination address, and the data itself. The largest frame size that can be sent is known as the maximum transmission Unit (MTU).

Important features of Data link layer:

• Assembles bits into frames, making them ready for transmission over the network.
• Provides error detection, and correction to transmitted frames. If the checksum is not correct, it asks for retransmission. (Send a control message).
• Consists of two sub layers:

   

  1. Logical Link Control (LLC): Defines how data is transferred over the cable and provides data link service to the higher layers.
  2. Medium Access Control (MAC): Controls media access by regulating the communicating nodes using pre-defined set of rules. (i.e. Token passing, Ethernet [CSMA/CD] all have MAC sub-layer protocol).

   

Different Data link layer protocols define different network and protocol characteristics, including physical addressing, network topology, error notification, sequencing of frames, and flow control. Physical addressing (as opposed to logical addressing) defines how devices are addressed at the data link layer. The protocols used in Data link layer are SLIP, PPP, and CSLP.

 

7. Physical layer:

This is the bottom-most layer of the OSI model. The Physical layer handles the bit-level communications across the physical medium. The physical medium could be made up of wired electrical signals, or light, or radio (wireless) signals. Physical layer specifications define characteristics such as media, data rates, maximum transmission distances, and physical connectors.

Some of the important standards that deal with physical layer specifications are:

RS-232(for serial communication lines), X.21, EIA 232, and G730.

Physical layer and Data link layer implementations can be categorized as either LAN or WAN specifications.

 

 

Vijayanand has done his post graduation (M.E.) in Communication Systems. He has several years of experience in electronic assembly and design, rf testing, and networking. He is a Cisco Certified Networking Professional, and an MCSE (Microsoft Certified Systems Engineer). He is a director of Anand Software and Training Pvt. Ltd. Complete tutorial on Networking is available at SimulationExams.com

 

About the Author

Virtual Machine Capabilities?

Hi, so I'm making an Office 2007 ISO for my friend. On the basis of this question although it does not matter, it is 100% legal. He is not very rich, I feel really sorry for him as I'm going to a private school and everyone has 2007, and he's still using some shitty 2000. So I'm getting him 2007, but I don't want to fuck his computer over, so I'm thinking of installing it on a Virtual Machine.
A) Can you install software, .ISO file onto a VM
B) Can viruses leak out of a VM onto the actual machine
C) Is microsoft latest VM Good? And is it a quick uninstall.

Thanks.
ps. If you know how long a 1.2 Gb ISO will take to burn please add.

Unless he has a CD/Product key for a legit copy of Office 2007 this is ILLEGAL.

If his computer is strong enough to emulate an OS it will be able to run a copy of Office 2007.

Burning the ISO to DVD depends on the speed of your DVD Burner.

EDIT: Microsoft Virtual PC is FREE too...

Microsoft Make Iso
how to make a windows pe 2.0 iso (low qualty)

Who Needs ISO 9001? I Don't Want to Change the Way I Do Business

It's important to remember the following key points:

 

1. If you truly do not want to change the way you do business, we can only wish you the best of success. However, you do risk atrophy. You may not be realizing the full potential of the business.
2. ISO 9001 is meant to fit into your business, not the other way around
3. ISO 9001 does not know anything about your business. It is a generic management standard in that it can be applied to companies of any size irrespective of whether they deliver products or services. But ISO 9001 does know about best practices for running an effective and efficient Quality Management System (some call it a Business Management System).
4. Think of ISO 9001 as a playbook for helping you run a better business. Ignore the playbook at your own peril. Imagine you are learning to play chess for the first time. Wouldn't you be a more effective chess player if you studied an authoritative chess manual? We're not saying you should stop playing chess but in order to become more successful, you do need to adapt and that means changing the way you play the game.
5. ISO 9001 is about Quality, Customer Focus, Leadership, Involvement of People, System Approach to Management, Continual Improvement, Process Approach, Fact-Based Decision Making and Mutually Beneficial Supplier Relationships. What business wouldn't want to stand behind those principles? Your customers (and potential customers) would strongly argue that your business should stand behind these principles. Therefore, maybe you do indeed need to change the way you do business insofar as learning how to accommodate the guiding principles espoused by ISO 9001.
6. ISO 9001 is the world's most popular international standard. More than 1,000,000 companies in over 174 countries are certified to ISO 9001. Is this a fluke? Why would Rolls-Royce, Purolator Courier and countless other companies pursue and maintain certification to ISO 9001 unless they understood the positive return on investment engineered by ISO 9001?
7. Nowhere in the standard does it state your business needs to incur any mandatory expenditures
8. The idea for ISO 9001 was hatched by people like you and I. These people felt there needed to be a better way for businesses to provide consistent quality in their products and services in order to better serve the customer. Their concerns were taken to a higher power. In this case, the International Organizations for Standardization (ISO). Because of an ongoing worldwide demand and a clearly established need from industry sectors and stakeholders for a Quality Management System (QMS), ISO launched the development of ISO 9001. In summary, these people were not looking to change their business per se but they were open-minded in considering anything that would take them from good to great.

 

 

About Richard Desmarais and statusGO business solutions: Richard is a certified ISO 9001:2000 Lead Auditor and has intensively studied the poetry of the ISO 9000 family. With Richard's leadership as Enunciate Conferencing's ISO Management Representative, Enunciate achieved certification on its first attempt and became the first and only ISO-certified conferencing company in the world. He is a Registered Professional Trainer (RPT), a nationally-recognized designation in Canada. To date, there are only 176 RPTs in Canada. He is a member of the Canadian Professional Trainers Association, the Association of Independent Consultants and the International Customer Service Association. Richard is also a certified as a Microsoft Master Office Specialist. statusGO business solutions specializes in helping companies implement and optimize their Quality Management System by utilizing the principles and best practices outlined in the ISO 9000 family of standards. And we ensure you maximize your Conferencing & Collaboration experience with our customized training solutions.

Visit us at http://www.statusgo.ca

About the Author

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Microsoft Make Iso